How do I test a card that succeeds in create_card but fails to pay?
Is there a card number for testing that has those characteristics?
There isn’t a card number for this test case however the test value ccof:customer-card-id-declined is what you’ll use to pass to the payment request that will simulate a card on file decline. 
Is there a value what the subscription can be created, but the initial payment fails and the invoice is unpaid?
Such cases seem to be occurring.
Unfortunately, there isn’t a test value for that. We’re constantly working to improve our features based on feedback like this, so I’ll be sure to share your request to the API product team.
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Is there any update here? I’m trying to replicate a common state we have where I can create an invoice but it fails to publish because the card on file gets rejected.
We save cards on file for our customers, so that we can periodically bill them.
We often see billing failures for expired cards or insufficient funds, so I need a way to get a test card on file that throws those errors when charged.
At present, I can’t get those cards on file because they fail when I try to add the card to a customer.
I also tried just using the test cnon/ccof ids but they fail because they’re not associated with the customer.
How can I create an unpublishable invoice in test?
At this time there isn’t a test value for this test case. We’re constantly working to improve our features based on feedback like this, so I’ll be sure to share your request to the API product team.
Also when an invoice publishes and the payment fails the customer is notified and given the option to pay the invoice after contacting there bank or they can use a different card to pay for the invoice. 
My issue is dealing with invoices that fail to publish. They’re stuck in Draft until I update them.
I’m trying to automate the update, but I can’t reliably get it to happen in the sandbox. Whereas with my customers, it happens every day.